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prior to AD1600, Indians hunted deer with bow
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New Hampshire WHITE-TAILED DEER ASSESSMENT 2015
Historical Perspectives Deer population assessments from pre-colonial and colonial times are the epitome of qualitative information. As reported by Silver (1957), the best possible interpretation of early - 57 - records results in “absent”, “scarce”, “common” and “plentiful” as the most accurate descriptors available. It is necessary to use caution even in interpreting these terms however since “plentiful” likely meant a deer population averaging between 10 to 15 per square mile, not the 100+ per square mile seen in some populations (not New Hampshire).
Additionally, those estimates of 10- 15 deer per square mile applied to southern New Hampshire, not the mountains and further north where habitat, winter weather, and predation constraints were more intense.
Up until the mid 1800's Eastern Wolves and Deer in age-old
dance
Deer appear to have been considered plentiful in southern New Hampshire, at least up through 1700 when increasing settlement with its increased land clearing and deer harvest pressure resulted in population declines.
By 1850, land clearing was about at its maximum and for much of the preceding 150 years deer hunting had been a year-round pastime if not occupation. By the late 1800’s deer were considered scarce.
At this time, improved management, law enforcement and farm abandonment all contributed to produce slow deer population increases until by 1950, they were once again considered plentiful.
Settlement in the north led to deer population increases due to the influence of several factors. “Perhaps the greatest influence in this direction was destruction of the wolves which the settlers prosecuted with great diligence.” Additionally, clearing of land for agriculture and timber harvest led to improvements in browse availability although these factors were thought to have had minimal impact.
This increase in deer numbers occurred during the early 1800’s and appears to have peaked about 1830. The reappearance of the wolf and the notion that eliminating the deer would solve the wolf “problem” combined with lumber camp meat hunting and other forms of market hunting decreased deer numbers to the point of scarcity by the late 1800’s.
As in the south, curtailment of over-harvest through management and enforcement resulted in population increases through the early 1900’s. Since the extirpation of the wolf, northern deer populations are primarily influenced by hunting and winter severity.
Recent estimates from New Hampshire (which are derived from similar data using similar modeling methodology) are 12.3 deer per square mile of habitat (100,118 deer in 8,140 square miles of deer habitat). Current density estimates in Maine and New Hampshire are based on harvest data including the sex and age composition of the kill in addition to estimates of productivity and non-hunting mortality. Because of the reliance on harvest data however, populations can be under-estimated in areas with limited hunter access or in areas of very low hunter pressure. Moving south and west from New Hampshire, states with less severe winters, higher overall soil productivity, and in some cases limited ability to control populations, can see deer populations averaging 30-40 per square mile and locally in excess of 100 per square mile.
In past planning efforts in Maine, maximum desired pre-hunt deer densities did not exceed 24 deer per square mile. This is also probably about the upper limit of long-term biological and cultural carrying capacity for deer in New Hampshire’s “best” deer habitat as well. Based on New Hampshire data, this density (24 deer per square mile) would equate to an adult buck kill of approximately 1.8 per square mile. Currently WMU M is the only unit at this level with an adult buck kill of 1.7 per square mile. However, other southeastern units are approaching this level
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HISTORICAL INFORMATION While population densities of white-tailed deer prior to European settlement are uncertain, it is generally accepted that they were much lower than current populations. Three distinct historical stages with regards to white-tailed deer populations can be delineated. The first stage, pre-European settlement prior to 1700, can be characterized by low deer densities.
Deer populations were regulated by cyclical harsh winters (every 10-20 years) which resulted in elevated mortality. Predators inhibited deer populations from increasing significantly following severe winters. These predators included carnivores like wolves and mountain lions and the several million indigenous people that depended on deer for sustenance (Rooney 2001). These predators were only able to regulate white-tailed deer numbers at the low densities that occurred during this era (Eberhardt and Peterson, 1999).
Finally, population growth was hampered by the depleted food resources made available by the composition and structure of the dense mature forests (Leopold, 1943; McCaffery 1976).
NEW HAMPSHIRE Deer Season Harvest: Comparison by County
The unofficial deer kill for New Hampshire’s 2016 hunting season was 10,702, down slightly (2%) from the 2015 final kill of 10,895. Based on this estimate, the 2016 total represents the 7th highest kill in the last 9 years and is very similar to the 20-year average of 10,912. Deer hunting seasons are now closed in the state.
prior to AD1600, Indians hunted deer with bow
"With nearly 11,000 deer taken by hunters, it has been another very good season overall in New Hampshire,” said Dan Bergeron, the N.H. Fish and Game Department’s deer biologist. He noted that the physical condition of deer was good again this year, and that quite a few very large bucks were harvested throughout the state, including a 266-lb. buck taken in Success which made the top 10 list of biggest bucks ever harvested in the state (for all hunting methods).
Bergeron also noted that “this season’s estimated total harvest ranks among the top 25 total harvests going back 95 years to 1922. In fact, 21 of the top 25 years have taken place from 1995-2016 (during the last 22 years), and 9 of the top 10 years for adult buck harvests have taken place since 2000 (adult buck harvest numbers for 2016 have not yet been verified).
Bergeron also noted that “this season’s estimated total harvest ranks among the top 25 total harvests going back 95 years to 1922. In fact, 21 of the top 25 years have taken place from 1995-2016 (during the last 22 years), and 9 of the top 10 years for adult buck harvests have taken place since 2000 (adult buck harvest numbers for 2016 have not yet been verified).
A summary of the actual kill by Wildlife Management Unit (WMU) compared to previous years will be provided in the 2016 NH Wildlife Harvest Summary, available in March 2017.
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New Hampshire WHITE-TAILED DEER ASSESSMENT 2015
Historical Perspectives Deer population assessments from pre-colonial and colonial times are the epitome of qualitative information. As reported by Silver (1957), the best possible interpretation of early - 57 - records results in “absent”, “scarce”, “common” and “plentiful” as the most accurate descriptors available. It is necessary to use caution even in interpreting these terms however since “plentiful” likely meant a deer population averaging between 10 to 15 per square mile, not the 100+ per square mile seen in some populations (not New Hampshire).
Additionally, those estimates of 10- 15 deer per square mile applied to southern New Hampshire, not the mountains and further north where habitat, winter weather, and predation constraints were more intense.
Up until the mid 1800's Eastern Wolves and Deer in age-old
dance
Deer appear to have been considered plentiful in southern New Hampshire, at least up through 1700 when increasing settlement with its increased land clearing and deer harvest pressure resulted in population declines.
By 1850, land clearing was about at its maximum and for much of the preceding 150 years deer hunting had been a year-round pastime if not occupation. By the late 1800’s deer were considered scarce.
At this time, improved management, law enforcement and farm abandonment all contributed to produce slow deer population increases until by 1950, they were once again considered plentiful.
Settlement in the north led to deer population increases due to the influence of several factors. “Perhaps the greatest influence in this direction was destruction of the wolves which the settlers prosecuted with great diligence.” Additionally, clearing of land for agriculture and timber harvest led to improvements in browse availability although these factors were thought to have had minimal impact.
This increase in deer numbers occurred during the early 1800’s and appears to have peaked about 1830. The reappearance of the wolf and the notion that eliminating the deer would solve the wolf “problem” combined with lumber camp meat hunting and other forms of market hunting decreased deer numbers to the point of scarcity by the late 1800’s.
As in the south, curtailment of over-harvest through management and enforcement resulted in population increases through the early 1900’s. Since the extirpation of the wolf, northern deer populations are primarily influenced by hunting and winter severity.
Recent estimates from New Hampshire (which are derived from similar data using similar modeling methodology) are 12.3 deer per square mile of habitat (100,118 deer in 8,140 square miles of deer habitat). Current density estimates in Maine and New Hampshire are based on harvest data including the sex and age composition of the kill in addition to estimates of productivity and non-hunting mortality. Because of the reliance on harvest data however, populations can be under-estimated in areas with limited hunter access or in areas of very low hunter pressure. Moving south and west from New Hampshire, states with less severe winters, higher overall soil productivity, and in some cases limited ability to control populations, can see deer populations averaging 30-40 per square mile and locally in excess of 100 per square mile.
In past planning efforts in Maine, maximum desired pre-hunt deer densities did not exceed 24 deer per square mile. This is also probably about the upper limit of long-term biological and cultural carrying capacity for deer in New Hampshire’s “best” deer habitat as well. Based on New Hampshire data, this density (24 deer per square mile) would equate to an adult buck kill of approximately 1.8 per square mile. Currently WMU M is the only unit at this level with an adult buck kill of 1.7 per square mile. However, other southeastern units are approaching this level
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New Hampshire's Coyote
You may wake up to the sound of coyotes howling in the weeks to come, because February is the peak of the coyote-mating season. Come April, 4 to 8 pups will be born in a den concealed in a brushy slope or under a log pile. The male coyote hunts for the female, bringing her food, which she regurgitates to feed her young. About 70 percent of the pups will die before their first birthday. The eastern coyote is a relative newcomer to New Hampshire.
The first coyote was seen in Holderness in 1944. During the 1970s and 80s, coyotes spread throughout the state. Today, they are entrenched statewide in every available habitat from rural to urban. Studies by Dr. Robert Wayne of the University of California on tissue samples of New England coyotes found a great deal of wolf blood related to the gray wolf of Quebec. This is why our coyotes, weighing 48-60 pounds, are nearly twice the size of the western species. Coyotes come in an array of colors, from creamy to rust-colored to tawny gray. Their erect, pointed ears and bushy, drooping tails distinguish them from dogs
. Coyotes are opportunists and eat all sorts of things, depending on the time of year. In the summer, they eat fruits and berries, insects and small mammals like rabbits, squirrels and mice. They'll also eat dead animals and prey on deer slowed by deep snow. New Hampshire trappers have harvested an average of 379 coyotes each year over the past decade. The coyote is the only furbearer species that has a year-round open season for hunting and trapping in the state, but this hasn't reduced New Hampshire's coyote population. No wonder this crafty canid is called "wily coyote!" --Eric Orff, Wildife Biologist; and Dr. Judy Silverberg, Wildlife Educatortent
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The black bear is the only bear species in New Hampshire. Population estimates range between 4,800 to 5,000 bears statewide. Regional beardensities across the state range between 0.1-1.0bears/square mile and average 0.5 bears/square mile
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“Bobcats are now functioning as apex predators, and as a result, their success may be an important indicator of overall ecosystem health,” Marian Litvaitis, professor of natural resources and the environment, said in a news release. “Recent population increases suggest that bobcats are adapting to a changing environment. Identifying the pathways of this success may provide insight into understanding how ecosystems can remain relatively intact as human population continues to expand.”
Litvaitis and doctoral student Rory Carroll are leading the study.
New Hampshire’s bobcat population has rebounded since it was protected from hunting in 1989. UNH researchers estimate there are as many as 1,400 bobcats in the state. -
Litvaitis and doctoral student Rory Carroll are leading the study.
New Hampshire’s bobcat population has rebounded since it was protected from hunting in 1989. UNH researchers estimate there are as many as 1,400 bobcats in the state. -
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PRE COLONIAL DEER DENSITIES
Historic and Current Statewide Deer Population
The white-tailed deer population density in North America before European colonization was
approximately 10 per square mile (McCabe and McCabe 1984)
HISTORICAL INFORMATION While population densities of white-tailed deer prior to European settlement are uncertain, it is generally accepted that they were much lower than current populations. Three distinct historical stages with regards to white-tailed deer populations can be delineated. The first stage, pre-European settlement prior to 1700, can be characterized by low deer densities.
Deer populations were regulated by cyclical harsh winters (every 10-20 years) which resulted in elevated mortality. Predators inhibited deer populations from increasing significantly following severe winters. These predators included carnivores like wolves and mountain lions and the several million indigenous people that depended on deer for sustenance (Rooney 2001). These predators were only able to regulate white-tailed deer numbers at the low densities that occurred during this era (Eberhardt and Peterson, 1999).
Finally, population growth was hampered by the depleted food resources made available by the composition and structure of the dense mature forests (Leopold, 1943; McCaffery 1976).
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Around northern New England and upstate New York, many landowners, foresters, and wildlife enthusiasts have similarly conflicting feelings about deer. The million-dollar question is: how many deer are too many? Is it when the population density reaches a certain number, like 16 or 20 deer per square mile? Is it when hunters complain that the deer are too skinny and that there are no trophy bucks? Is it when the deer population exceeds the habitat’s carrying capacity? Or when environmental impacts, like loss of wildflowers, become noticeable?
It’s none of these things, says Thomas Rawinski, a botanist with the U.S. Forest Service in Durham, New Hampshire, and an expert on deer overabundance. While all are factors, the criterion that tops all others is the cultural carrying capacity: the number of deer that people are happy having around.
“Every person has a different life experience with deer,” says Rawinski. “They may be orchardists or farmers, or they may have had a vehicle collision or Lyme disease.” All of these influences must be included in the process of deciding how many deer there should be. “Wildlife is owned by everybody, so everybody needs to make the decision.”
Still, a recent public comment period revealed that the region’s foresters would like to see the deer population reduced to a quarter of what it is today. At the same time, hunters in the area are complaining that deer numbers are down; they’re advocating for more deer
Foresters often have a front-row view of the damage “too many” deer can cause to the landscape. Wildflowers, such as trillium and showy lady’s slippers, can be especially hard hit. “Each adult white-tailed deer eats about 2,000 pounds a year,” says Charlie Fiscella, New York State chapter president of the Quality Deer Management Association “That’s one ton. Go out with clippers and see how long it takes you to clip one ton. It’s hard to do that, especially when the habitat is marginal.”
The Nature Conservancy is just finishing up a study finding that deer are one of the top threats to a healthy forest in New York State, and that oak and maple seedlings are a deer’s favored food source. Since woodlot owners and foresters are also fond of oaks and maples, the deer’s impact is deeply felt. As these commercially valuable hardwood species start disappearing, forest composition can be skewed to favor birch, beech, and hophornbeam.
When deer pressure is overwhelming, you get no seedling regeneration at all. This allows invasive species to fill the void and dominate the ecosystem. As the invasives grow, the deer continue to eat native plants and avoid the invasives, thus giving the invasives a perpetual advantage.
Biologists do caution, however, that deer sometimes get too much blame for bad forest regeneration. In a forest with even-aged trees and an overstory that lets in no light, it may be the tree canopy that’s suppressing the seedling growth. One study found only subtle differences in a deer-free, full-canopy forest plot.
Jeff Ward, chief scientist of the forestry and horticulture section of The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, based in Windsor, Connecticut, has first-hand experience with deer-caused imbalances. “In one study area where there was a ‘high’ deer herd, there was a 100-acre patch that was almost pure Japanese barberry,” says Ward.
Cases when deer do eat invasive plants can be just as much a problem as when they don’t since eating seeds can help the invasives spread. “Several years ago, we gathered over 5,000 deer poops in a greenhouse to see what would grow from them,” said Scott Williams, a deer biologist at the Experiment Station. Thirty-two species of plant that germinated were not native to the state of Connecticut, including Carolina horsenettle, little hogweed, and lambsquarters. “Deer are able to transport hundreds of exotic plant seeds each day to new locations,” said Williams. “That’s one aspect of superabundant deer that people don’t consider.”
As forest composition changes, animals suffer, especially songbirds. The National Audubon Society reports that eastern wood pewees, indigo buntings, least flycatchers, yellow-billed cuckoos, and cerulean warblers are negatively affected when deer populations exceed 20 deer per square mile. At 40 deer per square mile, an area starts to lose eastern phoebes and robins. Ground nesters, including ovenbirds, grouse, woodcock, whippoorwills, and wild turkeys, are vastly reduced.
Clearly, deer influence the environment, but they can also negatively affect our own health and safety. Deer play a role in the spread of Lyme disease, as well as the emerging diseases babesiosis (which has malaria-like symptoms) and human granulocytic anaplasmosis (which has symptoms similar to the flu). They also cause more-direct harm in accidents with vehicles. According to the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, about 150 people are killed in these accidents nationwide each year, while thousands more are injured. Property damage from such collisions totals $1 billion.
These experimental Pennsylvania patch cuts were done inside an enclosed area with a controlled deer population. Both cuts are 11 years old. Above, the controlled deer population was 10 deer per square mile. Below, 64 per square mile. Note poor regeneration.Photos by Susan Stout/USFS.
Many experts point to 15 to 20 deer per square mile as the level at which the negative environmental impacts of deer can be seen
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